What would your life story be like? What would you say? Why would you write it? What would you leave out and why? Where would you begin?
You begin. You finish, having spent months or even years recalling a mixture of meaningful memories. Then, imagine having your credibility, literacy and universal freedom of expression called into question; having to provide proof of authenticity (identity and status) and sufficient ‘intellect’ to verify and justify your life experience in print?
Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers Project, 1936-1938 contains more than 2,300 first-person accounts of slavery and 500 black-and-white photographs of former slaves.
These are some of the questions I asked myself whilst researching my interest into the narratives of enslaved men and women: autobiographies written by people of African descent who experienced the state of being bound in servitude as the property of a slaveholder or household during the Transatlantic Slave Trade between 1500-1880s.
My research into ’slave narratives’ (as these autobiographies are known) was originally funded by the National Lottery (‘Awards for All’) in 2007 with my research findings to be produced as an exhibition for the Nottingham community with artefacts and copies of these important black literary texts being made available for viewing. Nottingham Central Library hosted the exhibition as part of its celebrations for the Bicentenary of the Abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade Act of 1807.
The purpose of this article and the exhibition on slave narratives is to:
share research findings with my community
raise awareness of the existence and significance of these autobiographies and thus encourage new understanding and perspectives on a forgotten period of Western and African literary and social history
promote the importance of education and literacy
celebrate the resilience and courage of these writers of the African Diaspora and ultimately, to generate action and positive change in our communities
Research Developments
Scholarly research into slave narratives began in the 20th century marking the start of the narratives’ re-publication and thus, their valuable preservation for future generations. In the 1930s, Fisk University in the USA and the USA government jointly funded a scheme called the ‘Federal Writers Project’ which set about interviewing former slaves and recording hundreds of autobiographies for research purposes. Following this, Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s lit the spark for recovery, collation and revision of significant ‘lost’ slave narratives, and other important black writings. Academic discussion continued into the 1970s through articles, books and dissertations perpetuating the slave narrative in its own category of literary genre. Britain in 1980s seem to begin serious black literary research through key Black British history scholars like Peter Fryer, James Walvin (University of York), Professor David Dabydeen (Warwick University) and Paul Edwards have all contributed our knowledge of early autobiographies produced by people of African descent. There is also current scholarly interest into slave narratives in Germany, France, Japan, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
What is a ‘Slave Narrative’?
A slave narrative is an autobiographical, testimonial written account of the life experience of an enslaved African during and after slavery. Slave narratives give valuable and rare detail of what it was like to be enslaved, a brutalized person, and are written largely in their own words about their ‘new worlds’ as captives in Europe and the Americas. The slave narrative presents a different perspective on slavery; in opposition to the widely circulated proslavery publications like Edward Long’s ‘History of Jamaica of 1774.’
Slave narratives are a significant literary resource essential to our understanding of black African/Caribbean literary history as they form the ‘bedrock’ or foundation within Literature of the African Diaspora. They represent early forms of what is now a major literary genre, the autobiography, that emerged in England during the 1760s as a reaction to ‘rational’, impersonal schools of thought from the so-called ‘Enlightenment’ Period (‘Age of Reason’ c1680s-1790s) to a more personal, author-centered approach to understanding and improving the political and ‘transcultural’ turmoil throughout the Romantic Period of the 1780s-1840s.
The autobiographies were a product of their age and by the end of the 18th century emerged as a distinct literary genre and a primary source for the reassessment of British and American Literature. The majority of 18c early slave narratives were written and published in London or New England in the USA. Ironically, these locations offered a relatively safe and humane place for protest and request for freedom by black Africans (following the Somerset Case of 1772). Runaways and free black people had a small sense of legal freedom in UK. After 1807 interest in the slave narrative declined and thus the first period of popularity ended. The second phase in the publication of slave narratives occurred from around 1830-1865. This time the key purpose was to expose and attack the institution of slavery. This phase saw the greatest number of slave narratives published as a result of sociopolitical developments: changes in economic policy and technological advances; cities were growing; the West (US) was opening (frontiers), formation of a new societies, great optimism and social idealism.
Structure of a Slave Narrative
Slave narratives primarily chronicled incidents in the captive’s life and experience giving valuable insight into the narrator’s culture and society. Early slave narratives:
contained statements and arguments about philosophical, political and religious beliefs which are interdispersed throughout stories of bondage and escape
ironically mentioned less about the true atrocities of slavery than writers in the 19c. and attacked the Slave Trade on moral, religious and social grounds
maintained a strong sense of who they were and still considered themselves Africans (e.g. Olaudah Equiano, Venture Smith)
There are an estimated 6,000 slave narratives with a dozen or so written by former slaves residing in the UK at some point in their lives. Narratives were sometimes published in newspapers, magazines, anthologies, court records, church documents and in US State and Federal reports. Hundreds of thousands (millions?) may simply exist as oral accounts, sadly, seen as ‘not valid’ in the western world’s research organizations.
Most enslaved men and women were not permitted to read or write so their life stories were written down by ‘sympathetic’ editors (white abolitionists). This begs the question: how much of these narratives were edited out? (Bearing in mind that they would have been asked to submit evidence to back up claims made in their autobiographies, and sometimes, faced hours of interrogation and further persecution). Also, how many of these editors made ‘subtle improvements’ over the years with new editions of a narrative deliberately making our reading of each text less ‘pure’. Perhaps this would have been done so that readers could never reach the truth about the vile nature of the atrocities that happened during this period.
Who were these African narrators and how were they linked to Britain?
Through my research, I discovered that several writers of slave narratives actually lived or travelled to Britain at some point in their lives with many publishing their books or pamphlets in England and North America. Many also travelled and lectured across many countries as part of the Anti Slavery Movement. Some examples of male and female writers of slave narratives who lived in Britain include:
Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797)
Lived in London behind Middlesex Hospital (10 Union St, now called West Riding St currently behind Oxford St). Equiano was often at the Anti Slavery Office, in London (at 18 Aldermanbury St). His narrative called, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African, was published in London in 1789. A first edition is currently held at the British Library, London. Equiano sold his narrative himself with the support of the radical publisher, Joseph Johnson, situated in St Paul’s Church Yard, London. Equiano also visited Nottingham.
John Jea (1773- 1816)
Lived and married in Portsmouth and preached in Liverpool, Manchester, Yorkshire, Limerick and Cork. His narrative, The Life, History and Unparalleled Suffering of John Jea, the African Preacher, was published in Portsea in1815.a first edition is held at the British Library.
John Marrant (1755-1791)
Ministered in Whitechapel, London and was buried in the Huntingdonian Chapel (now demolished), in Church St, Islington, London. A Narrative of the Lord’s Wonderful Dealings with John Marrant, a Black. First published in London, 1785. A version is published in, Unchained Voices: An anthology of Black Authors in the English-Speaking World of the 18th Century, edited by Vincent Carretta (University Press of Kentucky, 1996).
Frederick Douglass (1818?-1895)
Lived in Britain for two years. Made no fewer than 51 speeches at 24 different locations across Britain in Bristol, Manchester, Ireland, Wales and Scotland. His Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, written by Himself, was first published in Boston (Massachusetts, USA) by the Anti-Slavery Office in 1845.
Harriet Jacobs (1813-1897)
Lived in Liverpool, London and Steventon in Berkshire. Jacobs spent ten months in the UK. Her autobiography, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl was published in Boston in 1861.
Mary Prince (1788?-1837)
Visited Hatton Garden and Chancery Lane, London taking shelter with the Moravian Church and Moravian Missionaries in Fetter Lane, London. Prince was helped by Anti Slavery Societies in London and Birmingham. Her Narrative was published in London and Edinburgh and called The History of Mary Prince.
Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (1710? Died after 1772).
Lived in London. Went to the Tabernacle Church off Petticoat Lane (a site is now part of a council housing estate), Liverpool St, London in 1772. Worked as a servant for royal artist Richard Cosway (a friend of British poet, William Blake). His narrative was published in Bath in 1772 and called, A Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African Prince, as Related by Himself. A copy is held at the British Library.
Briton Hammon (D.O.B unknown)
Hammon spent time in England recuperating after being wounded in the head (shot in a naval battle) in Greenwich Hospital, London. He stayed in London before returning to work on merchant ships as a cook. His autobiography, Narrative of the Uncommon Sufferings and Surprising Deliverance of Briton Hammon, a Negro Man, was published in Boston, USA, in 1760.
Louis Asa-Asa (D.O.B unknown)
Arrives in St Ives, Cornwall, England (following severe weather condition whilst on board a French ship) and is taken with four other shipmates to London. Whilst in England he wrote his narrative in 1831 and subsequently published in London and Edinburgh. Narrative of Louis Asa-Asa, a Captured African, is printed as a supplement in The History of Mary Prince: a West Indian Slave. Related by Her’. A copy is held at the British Library, London.
William Wells Brown (1814?-1884)
His narrative was published at 85 Queen St, Cheapside, London. Wells became well known in intellectual circles in Europe residing in there for several years. He gave an anti slavery lecture in Manchester which is recorded in the newspaper The Manchester Examiner and Times (Saturday, August 5, 1854). His autobiography called, Narrative of William W. Brown, an American slave. Written by Himself, has a portrait of him inside the cover. It was first published in Boston, 1847, then by Charles Gilpin in London, 1850.
What were the aims of a Slave Narrative?
The main aim of slave narratives was to give a realistic picture of the victims’ account of slavery from a captives’ perspective. The writers hoped that their personalized texts would somehow enlist readers’ disapproval of the atrocities, inhumane and immoral system of a business called The Slave Trade. These enslaved narrators tried to persuade readers towards the truth of their messages but also the necessity for every individual to work against the institution of slavery. The writers tried to challenge theories of racial superiority without raising suspicions that they were advocating social equality. These narrators were writing for a purpose; for historical imperative rather than a literary consciousness (for need rather than pleasure).
As time passed, there was increased radicalism–more directed attacks upon slavery and more information included in the narratives concerning black people’s contribution to American and British society. These narratives created greater tensions as they were more philosophical; the Africans were no longer traveling distances on slave ships but were now Africans born in North America or born in Britain, or even those born in South America, or on the Caribbean islands to which they had been taken. The structure from the earlier narratives was different. There was less about kidnapping into Western society, less about the Middle Passage sea journey and no adventures on the high seas. However, there is more information on attempts to escape through the Underground Railroad (the escape route to North America and Canada) and the writers experience campaigning against slavery as they no longer had the experiences of far away shores and continents: the USA and the UK, through circumstance, were their new homelands. Sadly, they now had to deal with the predicament of exclusion from the only societies they knew.
With the advent of the American Civil War (1775-83) public interest in slavery declined. The reality of a nation struggling for existence kicked in and there was little interest in outsiders such as blacks. After the Civil War there was a focus on rebuilding white America- upon rebuilding a nation with the finances and manpower gained from slavery.
What are the structures, contents and themes of Slave Narratives?
Some slave narratives had all the ingredients of a popular novel with personal interpretations of capture and kidnap, cruel enslavement, torture, violated maidens and separated families. The structure of the slave narrative is often written with a simple direct style (with Equiano’s eloquent style being an exception) in sections with beginning, middle and end. They frequently began with an introduction as an opening page, stating the title and assertion that the narrative was written by himself or herself and often with an addition label of ‘African/ West Indian or fugitive slave’. There were often chapters describing the narrator’s childhood and life before capture, their kidnap from their families, frequent transportation and displacement; whether across the Atlantic, from country to country or from different plantations.
There is often detail of a benefactor vouching for the honesty and integrity of the author and the reasons why the editor published the narrative (usually at the beginning or end of the narration). Each slave narrative was published with a minimum of two letters of reference from prominent/respected white citizens- usually ministers-who certified the good character and authenticity of the slave’s story. Editors included prefaces, news clippings, copies of legal documents and other materials published with each narrative to assure western literature readers of their validity. There were obvious pros and cons to having an editor as he/she posed a mandatory compromise with the narrator’s idea of form and content. The editors made serious effort to avoid unnecessarily antagonizing the British/US reading audience. There were also pressures by publishers, editors, and other sponsors to conform to tried and tested literary ‘standards’ and formulas. Many slave narrators resisted these efforts.
There is often an omission of exact time and dates but events are placed in chronological order (differing from a diary – there were no clocks and calendars for the enslaved). The concept of time was often illustrated by descriptions of local or national meteorological, social or political events (such as hurricanes, festivals and wars) and the passing of time through change of environment (quite often through travel); and accidental access to print media (newspapers and pamphlets), marriage (maturity), personal reflection or renewed sense of spirit and determination to survive: often not depicted at the start of the narrative. As a result, the ‘meatiness’ and richness in authentic descriptions of slave life ensured that the slave narrative became a vital part of anti-slavery publications circulated in Britain between the 1760s and 1880s; helping to galvanise public support for the abolition of slavery, and thus became powerful abolitionist tools, documenting injustices and initiating political and social change.
Who or what helped narrators in the production of their Slave Narratives?
Many of the autobiographies were not written in isolation. Assistance in many different forms was sought through:
The author’s own determination and resistance: his or her own desire and willpower for survival. Resilience: freedom fighting through literacy, education or physical struggle.
Spirituality: religious beliefs and practices from Africa and from Christianity. The Bible and faith in the Divine Providence (God) formed its own language of liberation and reform in the slave narrative.
Nonconformist churches: the Moravians, Baptists, Methodists and Quakers. An important aspect of the work of these churches was to deliver personal care, education and biblical instruction to the former slaves who they ministered to and converted into their churches. For example, the Moravian ladies taught Mary Prince to read and also baptized her and the Society of Quakers networked throughout Britain and campaigned for the equality of all people. The Quakers also played a vital role in the abolition of slavery through their contribution of finance, manpower, ideas and petitions to Parliament in 1783.The Methodists remained a movement within the Church of England and preached against the slave trade in Bristol and thus stood fast in its opposition to slavery. The Methodists placed a vital emphasis upon belief in the individual personal experience of God’s perfecting grace. The Methodist church kept their doors open to black slaves: in keeping with its broad agenda to “unite all races and classes of people and all denominations of Christians in a new birth in Christ.”
Sympathetic Individuals and organizations for example: writers, artists, members of the anti-slavery movement, philanthropists, abolitionist ghostwriters and editors for the slave narratives. These groups forming major players in the Abolition Movement with Abolition Committees created in every major town in Britain from the 1788 onwards.
The ‘Underground Railroad’ routes and safe houses to Canada and North America from the South, created by other slaves and secret white helpers and abolitionists.
Conclusion
Slave narratives are a great accomplishment. Despite forced enslavement, poverty and illiteracy, many enslaved Africans and former-slaves wrote and published their life stories containing extraordinary examples of courage, hope, feats of heroism and strength of character inspiring many readers including myself. The slave narratives illustrated individual impact and collective action and teaches us important lessons about tolerance, determination, self control and human rights to ponder and reflect upon in our society today. The texts were a process of self-liberation for captured Africans bound up in servitude under a mode of production in which, as chattel slaves, they constituted the principal work force and towards the emergence of a newly formed ‘self’.
Thus, the slave narrative is a construction of cultural art; a regeneration and transformation process created from the wreckage of the past. They help us, the readers, to bridge knowledge and gaps in literary and cultural representation erased from western literature. They also provide us with valuable insights into a history from which Britain and America often tries to hide: helping us to understand who we are, where we have come from, and our relationship with others in the African Diaspora, as well as in the world.
Our narrators of the slavery experience found their sense of purpose by focusing on outcomes: on being survivors and not on the obstacles of life–be they prejudice, racism or exclusion. Despite unspeakable suffering, enslaved men and women of African descent relied heavily upon their courage, intelligence, resilience and resourcefulness to raise families, maintained marriages and businesses, and surprisingly, executed great control over their lives under the circumstances. We are the product of their courage.
Slave narratives spoke of the dehumanization of a their race rather than their own individuality, and sought to present their authors as individuals and part of a community at the same time. These writers were active participants in trying to rid themselves of the brutal situations in which others placed them. In other words, they refused to accept their situation. They took risks to improve their lives; a feat many of us would find extremely difficult these days, through fear of repercussion, in this surveillance world we live in. The authors of slave narratives have shown their assertiveness, ability and strength of spirit in an attempt to carve out a literary voice of their own, and their stories display resilience and fortitude.
As a result, their autobiographies are a significant literary resource, essential to our understanding of black African/Caribbean literary history and should have a permanent and recognized place in the canon of literature written in English. These authors have certainly inspired and encouraged me to try even harder to make a positive change in the things that I do. I hope this essay has inspired and enlightened you to be an agent of positive change like our literary predecessors.
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